The city is divided into 10 administrative areas that are made up of 128 administrative districts.

Moscow spread over the joint of Smolensko-Moskovsky Hills, Moskvoretsko-Oksky Plain, and Meschersky Lowland. Smolensko-Moskovsky Hills lie in the North-West of the city. They are characterized by smoothed out relief with the absolute elevation of 175-185 meters. Moskvoretsko-Oksky Plain is located in the South of Moscow and is called Teplostansky Hills which have erosion surface and feature the absolute elevation levels of 200-250 meters. They are deeply divided by ravines and gullies. Meschersky Lowland is sited in the east of the city. It is a flat sandy low ground with the absolute elevation levels of up to 160 meters, where pine forests are widespread. There are some peat-marshes over the area.

The city of Moscow is located at 150 metres above the sea level, which is 30-35 metres higher than the level of the Moscow-river. Its valley occupies about 30% of the city’s area and consists of flood plains and terraces above the flood plains. The lowest city areas, located in the east and South-East, are at the boundary of Meschersky Lowland.

The Moscow River, which is the city main waterway, crosses its territory from the North-West to the South East. The length of the river is about 80 km within the city boundaries.

Specific temperature and landscape features characterise atmospheric conditions in the centre of Moscow and in the Moscow River valley: 1-1,5° C difference in temperature causes the air flows to move from the outlying districts to the city centre.

Moscow, lying between latitudes 55° 56’' N and longitudes 37° 38' E in the Central European Hills between the Oka river and the Volga river, is the most North-West megalopolis in the world.

Moscow’s climate is temperate to continental. Neither severe frosts nor intense heat are observed, though departures from the norm occur quite often. In December there may be long periods of thaw. In summer heat is suddenly followed by cold spells and incessant rains. On average temperatures above zero are observed in Moscow for 194 days while those below zero for 103. The sunny period is 1568 hours annually.

Air transmission for the solar radiation is one of the important climatic characteristics and an indirect indicator of air pollution. The integrated transmission coefficient in Moscow has reduced by 3% over the last 40 years. Cloud amount of lower and total cloudiness in Moscow has increased by 10% and 17% correspondingly for the same four decades. It can be explained by the increased frequency of cyclone air circulation in the cold period of the year, on the one hand. On the other hand, the city has a strong impact on the atmosphere that leads to the growing moisture content in the atmosphere.

The absolute temperature minimum (47° C below zero) has been observed just once over the past 80 years and only at one meteorological station in Tushino.

The city’s expansion is accompanied by considerably growing climatic differences between Moscow and the surrounding region. Sometimes the clear frosty nights are by 4-5° C colder in the country than in the city. Annual average temperature (3,8° C) at the city boundaries has not changed for 80 years, while in the centre it has grown up to 4° C by 1976, 4,8° C by 1990, and 5,6° C by 1995.

Warming effects inside the city are observed primarily from January to June, being particularly noticeable in the middle of the cold season. For example, over the past 12 years monthly average air temperature in January through March turned out to be by 2,3° C higher than that over the preceding 30 years period. However, November and December have becoming much colder (by 0,5° on average) in recent years.

Over the past decade, the cold season has been characterised by growing frequency of high (over 70%) relative humidity and comparatively high (above zero) air temperature in winter. Thaws that occur more often, increased frequency of unfavourable temperature and humidity combinations cause a certain discomfort and have a negative impact on the state of roads, buildings, and utility systems.

Annual average precipitation has been 760 mm for a 5 years period that is 1,2 times above the norm of many years (644 mm) and greatly contributes to the elimination of impurities from the atmosphere.

Monthly air speed norms registered at the observation points in the city centre, on the outskirts, and in the suburbs over the last 30 years are shown on figure.

Monthly average wind speed has been 2,2 m/sec over 1990-1995. Wind speed of 0-1 m/sec and calm weather have become more frequent (38% and 18% correspondingly). The maximum frequency (51%) of light winds has been observed in May to June. West, South-West, and south winds caused by the total atmosphere circulation dominated in the cold weather period. Since May, North-West and North winds are more frequent while the south-east wind was observed in 10% of cases on average annually.

Mists and fogs can be observed throughout a year but they are most frequent (2,15) in June, September, and October. The annual average frequency of «stagnant» weather conditions, like ground inversions under light wind of 0-1 m/sec, is 17%.

The analysis of meteorological observations has shown that mists and fogs, lack of precipitation, light winds, ground inversions as the conditions which are highly unfavourable for contaminants scattering. Such situations are most often observed in June.

The first record of Moscow dates back to 1147. Prince Yuri Dolgoruki (Yuri the Long Armed) was the founder of Moscow. Extremely favourable geographic situation of Moscow caused its advantage over other cities of the originating Russia. In 1276 Moscow became an independent principality and in 1328 it turned into the centre of the Russian lands with the consolidation of the separate principalities around it. Moscow was the capital of Russia till 1713. Under Peter the Great the political centre was transferred to St.-Petersburg and stayed there until 1918 when Moscow became the capital of the new Soviet Russia and later, in 1922, the capital of the USSR. After the August 1991, when Moscow was the epicentre of the extreme political events in the country, it became the capital of the independent state - Russian Federation - headed by the president.

Historical Moscow is a city of wars. From the ancient times there was a need in constant and reliable defence. The Kremlin’s walls and towers, which were built in 1485-95 under Ivan the Third Kalita, have been preserved till nowadays. The devastating fire of 1812 did not give a chance to the Napoleon’s army to stay in Moscow. Opposition of Moscow to the Hitler’s army in the end of 1941 contributed to a great extent to the victory over Germany in 1945.

Moscow is the centre of forming cultural traditions of Russia. In 1564 Ivan Fedorov printed the first dated Russian book “Apostle” in the Moscow printing-house. In 1868 the first higher educational institution in Russia – Slav-Greek-Latin Academy – was found (now it is the Spiritual Academy in Troitse-Sergiev Lavra). In 1701 the first Russian higher technical institution – Mathematical and Navigational School (now the Sea Academy in St.-Petersburg) – was open. The first Russian newspaper “Vedomosti” was published in Moscow in 1703. The Moscow University was found in 1755 (the regulations of the new higher educational institution were written by Prof. M.U. Lomonosov).

The city management was introduced in Moscow in 1868. Since that time the city was gradually transforming into the owner of the enterprises that provided better comfort to the Muscovites. To improve the sanitary in the city in 1888 the private slaughter-houses were destroyed and the new municipal ones were constructed. New construction of Mytischi water-pipe with the capacity of 1,5 mln. pails per day was open. The first turn of sewerage system was introduced in 1898 (within the Sadovoe Ring ). For the period 1901-1911 the city gained hors rail road (that had existed in Moscow since 1872) and changed it to the trams. By 1912 the tram park and gas plant became highly profitable enterprises.

Intensive growth of Moscow into the big trade and industrial centre started in the end of XIX century. There were more than 20 thousand trades and industrial enterprises in Moscow by that time. About 10 thousand of them were industrial and numbered more than 120 thousand employees. Small type enterprises with the average number of 16 employees were in the majority. Only 2% of all enterprises had more than 50 employees.

The textile enterprises (Moscow-sittcevaya (Moscow- «The chintz») were ranked high among the others in the structure of Moscow industry, then went construction, timber processing, food and tanning industry, stationery production, machinery making, etc.

In the first decade of the current century the Moscow industry started reaching the great degree of concentration. In 1910, 49% of the workers were employed in the 6% of the large Moscow enterprises. At that time enterprises with the number of employers above 500 were considered large ones - «Trehgornaya Manufactura», Moscow Chintz fabric, Guzhon’s metal-plant (now «Serp i Molot» (Hammer and Sickle), brothers Bromley (plant «Krasny proletary»), Gakkentel’s («Manometr»), Dangauer and Kaiser’s («Compressor»), etc.

The period of the industrial growth was marked by the strong penetration of foreign capital into Russian industry. All the enterprises of chemical and electrochemical industry in Moscow belonged to foreign firms (primarily, German).

The year of 1917 was the starting point of the development of machinery construction (from machine-tool construction to watch-making, from ball-bearing to automobile and textile) that stimulated the growth of metal-working industry.

Industrial development greatly changed the view of the city. The first buses appeared in 1924, the first trolley-buses were put in operation in 1933. In 1935 the first metro line was open and the General Plan of Reconstruction was adopted.