3.1. Geological environment

From the geological point of view, Moscow is situated on East European platform, which crystalline base is on the depth of about 2 km. Gneiss, granite and iron-quarts form the base of the platform which is broken on numerous blocks by deep fractures. Vertical movement of the Earth crust and variation of the sea level over the geological history cause the formations of deep (1700-2600 m) sediment layer.

About half of Moscow area lies in the zone of geological risk, 12% of the area is potentially risky, and 40% of the city area is estimated as stable in terms of geological structure. Lack of due respect to the peculiarities of geological environment repeatedly caused accidents. For example, three buildings were destroyed in the Khoroshevskoie highway; one building fell down into the ground in the city centre in 1998; sewer main drain ruptures and disposal by dilution in the ponds occurred; operating conditions in some radial metro lines were disturbed. Today 40% of the city area is waterlogged. There are 15 plots of land with large landslides (the depth of up 100 m) and dozens of small surface landslides. 15% of the city area may suffer from the disastrous downfalls. In the Western, South-Western and North-Eastern administrative districts the growing level of ground water (0,05-0,4 m/year) has been observed for two decades.

The number of small landslides caused by the technogenic activities has doubled over the past 15 years. These activities produce a negative impact and lead to a number of negative effects such as:

• - accumulation of domestic waste and man-made ground on the slopes and around them;

• - discharge of industrial and atmospheric surface water into the ravines;

• - cutting of the slopes along the riverbeds and ravines;

• - bad hermetic of the trenches when laying the service links in the vicinity of the slopes.

As a result, the number of landslides has been growing. For example, in 1985 a bridge across the Ramenka river was destroyed by landslide generated after the ground disposal was completed. in 1988, a trench was laid near the Kotlovka river, which caused a landslide followed by the cable rupture.

 The influence of the city activity on geological environment.

 The effect of the city on its geological environment varies in space. The following events are in progress under the influence of various factors of technogenic nature: compression of rocks, massive movement of rocks, hydrostatic compression of soils, mechanical and chemical suffusion, etc. The influence of the city is more noticeable in ground layers of the earth’s crust down to 60-100 m in depth, though in some cases it can extent up to the depth of 1.5-2.0 km.

The geological environment is subject to the mechanical impact of the city ground engineering structures. It is also affected by the disturbed ground water infiltration budget, the underground workings as well as by pumping-out of subsurface water and changing physical fields.

The static loading on thick rocks caused by the weights of buildings and structures was growing as the height of buildings, the concentration of build up areas and the materials used for construction works were increasing. In the early history of the city when wooden buildings were primarily erected the loading on rocks was less than 0,01-0,05 MPa. With the advent of stone buildings and structures the loading produced by them increased up to 0,15-0,2 MPa. Large-scale construction of tall buildings caused the loading on the rocks to increase up to 0,2-0,3 MPa. High-risers erected in the early 1950s produced the loading of 0,35-0,5 MPa. As for the modern tall dwelling buildings, their loading on the rocks is as much as 0,2-0,3 MPa because of the new materials and constructions and for the development.

The disturbed natural hydrodynamic conditions lead to the change of the stressed state of the water-containing rock formations that results in the rock compaction within the generating depression cones. This fact causes the growing surface sinking in an area and leads to a great number of accidents in the city public utilities. The most hazardous geological phenomena concerned with pumping-out of subsurface water are suffusion.

Under the definite geological conditions, the disturbed behaviour of the first ground water horizon might cause the increase of its and watering of surrounding area, primarily as a result of water leaks from the water systems and the change of the subsurface run-off conditions. The observed rate of underground water level increase varied from 0.05 to 0.4 m/years in West, South-West and North-East regions during the last 20 years.

3.2. Land Resources

A clear-cut disproportion of the urban lands varying from the environmentally reproductive ones to those degraded, contaminated, or withdrawn from the ecosystem demands to develop the city policy which allows for the environmental requirements in the land use for the city-building purposes.

The main direction of the further city-building development is the intensive use of the city land rather than the city extensive growth. The intensity of the city land usage is calculated as the value opposite to the level of disproportion between the existing and long-term use of urban lands.

To evaluate the efficiency of the city land use, Research Institute for Moscow City Planning and Development (RIMCPD) has chosen the following 9 basic parameters:

the density of building areas by the types of buildings; the coefficient of the area built-specific electric energy consumption, heat consumption, water consumption and availability of sewage systems; the level of negative environmental impact.

63% of the city area are characterised by the maximum, high and mean efficiency of the land use. They are concentrated on the Western, South-Western, South-Eastern, and Southern administrative districts.

Land resources usage

 In 1996 - 1997 the remote sensing of the city lands was carried out. As a result, green plantations, motor vehicle network, and industrial areas were outlined which makes it possible to start developing a computerised geo-information system (GIS) of Moscow.

 Green plantations.

 The nature and recreation areas make up 15.8 thousand hectares including 13.2 thousand hectares of forests and forest parks, according to the Moskomsem (the state agency responsible for the land use and control in Moscow). However, not all the green plantations in the city are registered and presented in the above monitored data. There are about 12 thousand hectares of the green plantations within the city districts, which should also be taken into consideration. The following table shows the distribution of the green plantations (including those located within the city districts)

The green plantations occupy the total area of 27.500 hectares including 25.7% plantations in the Eastern administrative district and 3.2% of plantations in the Central administrative district.

The green plantations are distributed more or less evenly over the area of different districts and make up 8% - 12% of total area of the city green plantations.

More objective data can be obtained by evaluating the degree of specific occurrence of the green plantations over the district area (sq.m./hectare). The highest figures are observed in the EAD (4640.0 sq.m./hectar) whereas the lowest ones in the CAD (1322.2 sq.m./hectar) and in the SAD (1754.8 sq.m./ hectar).

The “Losiny ostrov” (“the elk’s island”) state national park has been ranked the highest according to the results of ranking of the city natural complex areas which was based on evaluating their efficiency in terms of full filly the sanitary, protective, recreational reproductive and esthetic functions. The lowest functional efficiency has been observed in the Teply Stansky, Troparyovsky,Yasenevsky forest parks, the Neskuchny Sad (garden),and in the Luzhniki forest area.

The road network. The length of the city roads is 1235 km, the number of large transport facilities is 276. According to the RIMCPD, the road network scarcity was 200 - 300 km in 1996. 

Industrial areas. According to the space images obtained on April 26, 1996, industrial areas occupy 13.03 thousand hectares of urban lands, or 13.16%. They are distributed rather unevenly over the administrative districts, the degree of scattered less being 6.7 times. The minimum specific area occupied by industrial zones is observed in the South-Western, North-Western and Central administrative districts; the maximum one in South-Eastern administrative district.

Industrial areas in Moscow remain to be inefficiently utilized, unsystematically build up and threatening for the environment. Industrial buildings have 1-2 stores on average, and the efficiency of the land use is 2-3 times lower than the recommended.

 Industrial areas distribution over the territories of administrative districts
within the Moscow Road Ring (according to space imaging)

The influence of the city activity on the state of the city land.

 The seats of technogenic contamination are, as a rule, characterised by surplus concentrations of a range of chemical elements rather than just one in the soil. 29 elements have been discovered in sufficient quantities during research conducted in Moscow. The results of the analysis allowed to make up maps representing the dynamics of soil concentration in the city over 1986 - 1996. The results were presented in detail in State Reports; On the of environment in Moscow made in 1992, 1994, and 1996.

The ecological and geo-chemical evaluation of the state of environment, based on the analysis of soil photographs made it possible to imagine the level of negative impact produced by various pollution sources.

The study of soil cover in 1993 has shown that 52.4% of the total city area are characterised by minimum and low contamination. The medium level of soil contamination was observed on 25.4% of the city area. There were 22.2% of city area, which were regarded, as considerably contaminated.

Evaluating the threat for the health of the people living in contamination seats, it is should be borne in mind that very high concentrations of heavy metals produce a general toxic effect on one’s health by directly damaging or changing the functioning of the most important body systems. The impact produced by increased concentrations of heavy metals may be manifested in the next generations.

Mercury. Mercury content is the urban soil is distributed rather unevenly over the city area: there is no mercury contamination in the north, west and south whereas the centre and the South-East are heavily polluted with mercury. It has been determined that mercury concentrations in the city soils vary from 0.05 mg/kg to 5.0 mg/kg which corresponds to the concentration coefficient with reference to the Moscow regional background ranging from 0.5 to 50. Table 4.6 shows how the areas with different mercury concentrations in urban soils are distributed in Moscow.

Two zones of mercury contamination were discovered in the central part of the city where the level of MPCs is 0.5 - 1. One area lies between the Rizhsky railroad terminal and the Kievsky terminal. It is about 7 km long and about 2 km wide. The other area is extended along the down stream of the Yauza river for 4 km.

Both zones are, probably, the result of the long-term economic activities in the city centre rather than the present-day industrialisation. There is another large area in the South-East of Moscow (the Lyublinsky fields of filtration) where silts and soils are contaminated with mercury.

They contain not only domestic waste, but also industrial effluents from a large number of different enterprises. On the whole, the mercury contamination observed in Moscow is insignificant and not environmentally dangerous.

Cadmium. The cadmium content concentrations detected in Moscow soils are up to 100 mg/kg with respect to the concentrations below theanalytical limit of detection (1 mg/kg). Maximum concentration coefficient is 330 against the regional background.

 Distribution of areas with different content concentrations of cadmium in soils

A greater part of lands highly contaminated with cadmium has been found in isolated point places. There are a few areas with a high content of cadmium in soils, where many industrial enterprises, are concentrated. Thus, cadmium soil-contamination of 2-3 MPC (RPC) has been detected in three points located in the South of the Kosino-Zhulebino (residential area). It is most probably that it resulted from the operation of Lyuberetsky fields of filtration. On the whole, the cadmium contamination of urban soils is much higher than the mercury one. Isolated plots of contaminated lands make it difficult to accurately identify the sources of cadmium pollution.

 Lead. Lead content detected in urban soils varies from 8 mg/kg to 2000 mg/kg. The city centre is mostly contaminated with lead as well as area within and along the circle railroad, where the predominant lead content ranges from 65 mg/kg to 400 mg/kg (0.5-3 MPC). In the majority of new urban areas outside the Moscow Ring Road lead content is close to the threshold which can be explained by a highly developed road network.

 The structure of lead contaminated urban soils

 Plots, which have the highest lead, content (130 mg/kg to 2000mg/kg), are of limited sizes (less than 1sq.km) and are spread all over the city. In the central part of Moscow there are plots of land and spaces where lead content is above the threshold concentrations (130 mg/kg), and territories where contamination with lead is close to the permissible concentrations (65-130 mg/kg). The largest soil anomaly about 33 sq.km with a complex configuration stretches from the Novy Arbat avenue to the All-Russia Exhibition Centre (VVTs). The anomaly of around 8 sq.km occupies an area between the Oktyabrskaia square, the Novy Arbat avenue and the Kutuzovsky avenue.

Centres where lead contents various from 200 mg/kg to 400 mg/kg (1.5-3RPC) and seldom up to 500-600 mg/kg (4-4.6RPC) are detected within the boundaries of many soil anomalies. The seats of lead contamination are usually located close to the industrial areas where machine-building, electrical, manufacturing, printing, instrument-making, dye manufacturing enterprises are concentrated. Their waste and emissions usually contain lead.

Zinc. This chemical element is widespread in urban soils because there are quite a few various sources of zinc contamination. Almost 35% of the city soils contain zink in concentrations above 220 mg/kg (1RPC). Zinc contamination resembles a mosaic and is very unevenly scattered over the city area. On the one hand, there are large zones with high zinc content, on the other hand, there are isolated small seats of pollution-located primarily in industrial areas and important road functions which tend to spread over the residual areas where the risk of environmental disaster will grow. The zones of question are those where zinc content is much higher than 660 mg/kg. The largest areas type include:

- the Kosino-Zhulebino residental area in the east of Moscow polluted with the sediments from the Lyuberetsky fields of filtration;

- the areas adjoining the industrial area occupied by the Kalinin plant, the ‘Znamya’ plant, the ‘Aeroelectrotech’ corporation and others in the city centre;

- the areas surrounding the Lyuberetsky foundry and the Maryino industrial area in the south-east of Moscow;

- the Mosselmash corporation, the Mosteploset mechanical works and other enterprises in the north of the city.

There are also smaller areas containing much higher zinc concentrations which are in different administrative districts.

 The percentage ratio of different areas or seats of zinc contamination

The soils in recreational areas are least polluted by zinc. However, small but highly zinc contaminated seats are detected even there. They result from the unauthorised landfill sites where domestic industrial, and construction waste is accumulated.

Copper. The copper content in soils varies from 30 to 3000 mg/kg, the average being 158 mg/kg. The areas where the copper content is above 1RPC(over 132 mg/kg) occupy 36% of the city area in the Central, North-Eastern, Eastern, South-Eastern and Southern administrative districts. In the west of the city there are local anomalies with this copper content. About 9% of the city area have anomalies where copper content is above 2 RMC (over 264 mg/kg). They are usually located close to the sources of contamination. The origin of anomalies can be explained by the industrial activities both in the past and nowadays

 The percentage ratio of different areas or seats of copper contamination

A number of medium-sized (2-5sq.km) anomalies have been detected, one of them stretching along the Yauza River. The copper content in urban soils varies from 300 to 600 mg/kg, the maximum concentrations (500-600 mg/kg) having been detected near the “Serp and Molot” (“Hammer and Sickle”) industrial area. There is another anomaly with the copper content of 300-500 mg/kg in the “Southern Port” industrial zone. In the Eastern administrative district a copper anomaly has been found to the east of the Budenny avenue where the maximum copper content of 1000 mg/kg has been registered. This area is occupied residential areas, the western part of Kizmaylovsky forest park and the «Prozhektor» industrial area the instrument-making and electric manufacturing plants using copper as a row material are located.

The origin of copper anomalies in Kyuryanovo and Maryino can traced back to the industrial activities in these areas and sediments from the waste storage grounds which are often used as fertile soils for lawns and public gardens. Copper concentrations vary within the range of 300-600 mg/kg. Copper anomalies in the Ivanovskoye residential area and the Kuzminsky forest part occurred on the former garbage dumps. The small-sized (about 1sq.km) but having high concentrations of copper (200-300mg.) local anomalies were detected in different city areas. They are located primarily on the unauthorised landfill sites of domestic, industrial and construction waste or are used as fertile soils for lawns.

Map-making of the soils contaminated technogenic impact within the Moscow Ring - Road was conducted on the basis of the data obtained through a network of permanent observation points. It has shown that the level of contamination was considerably changing in different city areas in 1977 - 1993, the predominantly increased contamination of urban soils has been observed which marked the general deterioration of the environment. Comparing the maps of soil chemical contamination compiled in 1986 and 1996 shows that the number of low-contaminated areas has grown 1.9 times while the number of medium and highly contaminated zones has reduced 1.4 times and 1.7 times, correspondingly. 38% of the city area feature a relatively stable level of contamination, 16% - tend to the growing pollution, and 46% to the decreasing one.