The Moscow executive authority unit, Moscow Mayor's Office, was established in Moscow at the beginning of 1990s. Since that time, Mayor and Vice-Mayor have been elected by Moscow citizens and that is the main distinction of this administration structure from all others over the hole history of Moscow executive authority. Moscow Mayor, being a head of the city administration, manages the city development in the frame of his legal competence.

Yuriy Luzhkov was elected Moscow Mayor for the second time by the votes of the majority of Muscovites on June 16, 1996. At the same time a Vice-Mayor - Valery Shantcev - was elected. According to the City Regulation, the responsibilities of Vice-Mayor include the realisation of Mayor’s directives and the carrying out of Mayor’s duty in the case Mayor is absent.

According to the City Regulation, Mayor is also a prime-minister of the Moscow government which acts in the city administration within the time of Mayor’s authorisation.

According to the city legislation the main functions of the Moscow government are:

• elaboration of the city budget; indication of the non-budget financial sources; regulation and co-ordination of the development of the city economy;
• support of the development of small business by the introduction of the reduced taxes, property and other privileges in the frame of the city budget;
• regulation of land properties and privatisation process, providing the budget with the income from the real property market;
• realisation of common financial, price and tax policy;
• development of the system of the city taxes and charges as well as other sources of the budget income;
• support of the effective energy-saving, water, transport and communication systems;
• development of recreation and parks zones, improvement of the sanitary state of the city;
• development of engineering, exploitation and repairing house services;
• development of the institutional network for social sphere, medicine, education, culture and sport;
• implementation of the housing reform;
• co-ordination of the construction of new metro-lines;
• development of the Moscow Master Plan and long-term target investment programs; determination of the perspectives of social, economic, scientific and technical development of the city;
• planning, allocation, construction and reconstruction of gasoline stations, garage facilities, auto-washers, quickly-built trade, food and other service facilities;
• creation of the city food stock and its distribution among the wholesale enterprises;
• co-ordination of the inter-relations between construction organisations and the city ministries and authorities that regulate construction in the city;
• development of social, political and cultural relations with the capitals of other countries;
• organisation of the development of tourism and hotel facilities in the city;
• working out and realisation of the concept of international and economic relations, formation and realisation of the Moscow city currency fund;
• participation in the work of international organisations which activity is connected with urban development, municipal management and international co-operation;
• co-ordination of international economic activities of the local executive authorities of the city, owning the city real property;
• attraction of international capital to the city economy and control on the effective and rational use of international credits and investments,
• assistance in the increase of efficiency of export-import operations of municipal enterprises and organisation.

In 1996, when he was elected Mayor, Yuri Luzhkov declared about his own responsibility for improvement of the environment. Since that he has been paying special attention to these problems. In March 1997, The Department on the problems of nature usage and environmental protection was formed in the Moscow Government. The Head of the department is a member of the Moscow Government in the rank of a Minister. The Department is responsible for co-ordination of the Moscow Government bodies activities with the activities of the structures under the Mayor’s Office jurisdiction on the implementation of the programs and actions on the environmental protection, rational natural resources usage, the use and protection of lands, grounds, land- and ground-waters, atmospheric air, woods and other flora and fauna as well as the observing of the norms of ecological safety of the Moscow territory.

Government meetings take place when it is needed but not less than once a week. The meeting is believed to be authorised if not less than a half of the Government members are present. Government meetings are headed by the Prime-Minister or by the First Deputy of the Prime-Minister in the case of his absence. The Government resolutions are adopted by the majority of votes.

Being a collegiate body, the Moscow government considers the most important questions of the capital life and city management. The government usually considers and passes over a thousand regulations annually. About half of them is devoted to the problems of planning, construction and reconstruction of the city.

An important part of the government consideration is the questions connected with budget, finance, taxes, prices and charges. Significant part of the government activities is devoted to the improvement of housing facilities and increasing of the city welfare. The questions of social welfare and assistance to veterans, invalids and other categories of citizens also represent a great part of the government activities.

The main principles that are the basis for the government decisions are stated by the city law "About the Moscow government". Among them there are provisions such as basic people rights and freedoms, legislative decisions, glasnost', sharing of authorities, collegiate authorisation, combination of centralisation and decentralisation of the management power, personal responsibility of authorised people for their decisions.

The Prime Minister, first deputies, deputies, the Manager of the Mayor's office, ministers and prefects of administration units are the members of the government. All of them are appointed to and dispensed from job by the Mayor.

Departments, committees, administrations and territorial executive authorities such as prefectures (administration of administrative unit leaded by a prefect) are the parts of the city executive authority. This is so called sector and functional city administration units.

All these institutions are divided in four prioritised categories, city management complexes (except some services, which are under the Mayor’s control): City facilities complex, City development complex, Economic policy, land and property complex and Social complex.

 All federal as well as local authorities of two units of the Russian Federation, Moscow and Moscow region, are situated in Moscow. In order to preserve the most valuable part of the Moscow industry potential co-operative organisations such as financial and industrial groups, holdings and associations for high-technological industries should be developed. The goal of such organisations is the realisation of the advantages that Russia achieved in the research and technology.

Re-structuring in industrial complex will be made in the following directions:

• putting together financial and material resources with the capacities of the governmental institutions to pursue modernisation programs for high-technological industry;
• graduate decrease of the share of budget financing in the realisation of research and technological programs and increase of non-budget investments;
• shift of the majority of the research and technological programs to commercial basis;
• implementation of the projects that provide resource saving and environmental security of the region;
• attraction of foreign investments.

 During the last years the activity of all levels of the Moscow executive authority is aimed at overcoming the consequences of the crisis of financial and budget system in the country. Economic and social reforms are being actively conducted in Moscow. All the important goals of the Moscow Government Programme for 1997 and all the promises to the Muscovites have been fulfilled by the Moscow government.

The rate of income growth in Moscow is higher than in Russia in a whole. In 1997 an income from the usage of the city property was 7,7 trillions rubbles which is about $1,3 billion. The largest part of the income was received from the rent of uninhabited lodgings and the city lands.

The formation of the city credit and financial and loan and investment systems including banks, stock-exchange, foundations and other institutions, has been completed in Moscow. The goal of these systems is to attract investments to the city programs and highly-effective investment projects. Financial strategy of the city authority promotes the increase of investment activities and industry stabilisation. This strategy is based on the combination of the city own finance and loans and active resource usage in prioritised fields.

The decline of industrial activities, which have been observed in Moscow since the beginning of the 1990s, was stopped in 1997. The level of industrial productivity for 11 months of 1997 was 102,1% of the previous year level. As a result of regeneration, the productivity of Moscow motor vehicles factory, AMO "ZIL" and AZLK, was increased in 3,0 and 5,7 times respectively. The production of consumption goods has been also increased in the city.

The city social program on a help to needy citizens was implemented by all departments, committees and administration units. Different helps received by 3,5 billion Moscow citizens. The system of subsidies to needy families for facility’s charges was created. Additional budget income allowed increase pensions to the unemployed retiree. At the social sphere enterprises working under the city budget the salary has been increased by 20-50%. There has been no interruption in foods and goods supply in Moscow. The network of services has been increased in the city by 1084 enterprises.

The celebration of the 850 anniversary of Moscow became a world wide known event. Special importance of this event was attached to the fact that all generation of Muscovites joined together to understand their own history and increase the capital welfare. A huge program on the improvement of the city and expansion of the green zones was completed by the anniversary celebration. A lot of the monuments of national history and culture were rebuild. The work on the renewing of green zones and parks, building of modern complexes and architectural ensembles which gave a new appearance to the capital, was completed. The program on the reconstruction of old schools was started.

Housing is the prioritised direction of the investments. In 1997 dwellings occupying the total square of 3340 thousands sq. m. were introduced. Social support is granted to people with average income to help them to buy their own dwelling.

Collaboration of the Moscow City government and parliament (Duma) are being strengthened. According to the Moscow law "About the social partnership" the scheme of collaboration of the city authorities, trade unions and business is implemented and developed.

4.4. Strengthening Management Arrangements

 In the near future the Moscow Government is planning to continue the transformations in economic and social spheres. The efforts will be concentrated on the priority problems connected to sustaining the stability of urban infrastructure, further stabilisation of industry, intensification of investment activities primarily in the housing building and reconstruction. Specific measures will be undertaken to solve environment problems, develop road and transport complex, and ensure the income growth of working people while preserving an active social support of the needy Muscovites.

Social sphere

 In the social sphere measures on the preserving of working places in the basic sectors of the economy, expanding of the employment in the market economy and small business become the reality, that allow steady income growth of working Muscovites. In 1998 it was planned to reduce the number of unemployed up to 1% of engaged population and to set up the quotes for youth employment. 17.8 billion ruble from the municipal budget and 0.8 billion rubles from non-budget sources (the financial parameters of the program are given in accordance with the denomination) are supposed to be granted for the implementation of social support and for the Muscovites’ subsidises. These figures are 1.6 times more than in 1997. The measures to be undertaken in 1998 visualise:

Additional payments for unemployed pensioners - 973.5 Th. people

Food subsidies and free food for school-children - 1078 Th. school children

Subsidies to the large families and lonely mothers - 228 Th. families

Subsidies for housing facilities - 600 Th. families

Social home help to lonely pensioners and invalids - 115 Th. people

Free of charge municipal transportation - all pensioners

Privileges for municipal transportation - students, Ph.D. students

 Not less than 40% of the budget was supposed to be spent on the maintenance of social sphere. The total number of the centres of social services for the population should be increased up to 127. The Moscow Government plans: to open extra 11 social centres, 10 departments of charity and 9 departments of invalids’ rehabilitation; to ensure financing of municipal programme «Children of the streets».

Public health sphere

 The insurance payments (2.3 billion. Rubles) in addition to the budget allocations (7.1. billion Rubles) were planned to ensure the realisation of the obligatory medical insurance program in the public health sphere in 1998 with the drawing in federal and departmental health institutions. There are following provisions: to provide the municipal population with free medical services of the guaranteed volume and quality; to insure price reduction for the obligatory minimum of drugs; to complete the creation of the automatic management system of urgent and first-aid services in Moscow.

Municipal education

 It is planned to keep on the formation of the modern flexible municipal education system and the development of new type institutions. The following measures ought to be undertaken: to eliminate the lack of teaching staff; to reduce the number of 2-shift schools; to work out and start the implementation of the programme «Higher education and employment of youth» in the view of the city needs; to allocate 40 million. rubles for the support of the Moscow leading universities and assistance of the 35 thousand sharply needy students.

Culture

 In the near future it is planned to carry out a program on the development of cultural traditions in the city. The main purpose of the program is to uphold the accessibility of cultural facilities for all levels of the population by providing the needy Muscovites with the privileges, to keep on construction and reconstruction of cultural amenities, Moscow Zoo and other garden and park ensembles.

 Sport

 The Moscow Government increases the budget financing of physical culture and sport, and keeping on the privileges on municipal services for sport facilities. The network of sport and health centres is being constantly expanded by the founding of children-sport schools and sections attached to stadiums, playing fields and clubs.

 Food service

 In order to improve food services in 1998 the following food-stuff should have been delivered: meat and meat products - 680 th. t, butter - 65 th. t, oil - 130 th. t, sugar - 500 th.t, dairy products - 500 th. t, cereals - 1200 th.t, potatoes - 90 th.t, vegetables - 202 th.t. The sum of 359.4 million rubles from the municipal budget should replenish the budgetary Fund of food-stuff to meet the current needs and ensure stocks.

It is supposed to decrease the city dependence on the foodstuff import due to the more effective resource use in Russian regions to meet the Moscow needs in high quality domestic foods. It is also planned to increase meat and poultry deliveries to the city due to the renewal of poultry-breeding in Moscow region. Measures to provide environment safety of the foods delivered to Moscow are also to be taken.

There are plans for the opening of new wholesale markets, construction of new trade, public food and household facilities as well as reconstruction of the existed ones.

 Municipal housing

 Due to the limitation of the budget resources to be applied for the investment problems, the budget money is supposed to be used: to develop municipal housing; to carry out the construction of inexpensive residence of the social use with its equal distribution over the districts; to start the program on the liquidation of communal flats. To facilitate acquisition of the apartments by the Muscovites with average incomes they plan to reduce the construction cost of municipal housing by putting orders on the competitive basis and investment projects; to develop the municipal loan system, mortgage loan, and target accumulation accounts.

Housing reform is going on in the city. It visualises: putting the competitive system of the realisation of the state orders; reducing the cost of works on maintenance and capital repairing of the housing fund; abating the cost of housing facilities; step-by-step implementation of the instrumental registration of energy and water expenditures. The increase of the housing facilities charges is expected to be in accordance with the real income rate of the general population. The share of housing facilities expenses should not exceed 12.5% of the total Muscovites’ incomes. It is planned to launch the city programmes «Our yard» and «Our doorway».

Transport

 In the transport section it is planned to continue the construction of bus and trolley-bus parks, increase the petrol stations by 100-120 units and to expand the network of modern parking by 80 thousand car-places. In the view of essential reduction of the centralized capital investment allocated from the federal budget for the Moscow metro (underground) development, it is planned: to keep on constructing Butovo metro line and to ensure safety conditions of other uncompleted metro lines; to start exploitation of new generation metro-train «Yauza».

The environment

 The Moscow Government considers the improvement of the environment to be of the paramount importance. The actions on environmental protection are supposed to be supported by the city budget as well as by target loans and the Moscow environmental fund.

The program of step-by-step establishing of exhaust neutralisers on the municipal, departmental and private motor vehicles and the use of liquefied gas in the vehicles has been carried out. The penalty sanctions for exceeding maximum permissible concentrations of discharge in the city and its entrances are becoming rigid. A set of actions on recovering and expanding landscaping, cleaning and improving the open city’s reservoirs, bringing about an orderly arrangement of park zones, boulevards, public gardens, and green plantations along the highways has been implemented.

 Financial, economic, land and property relations.

 Tax privileges will be extended to the companies that in accordance with the Moscow Complex Ecological programme, involved in constructing environmental facilities, waste recycling and recovering, landscaping, working out of neutralising filters at the production units and transport, and other activities such as removal of environmentally-harmful production.

As to financial, economic, land and property relations the Moscow Government has the plan to involve finances in the budget and non-budget city funds by applying effective market schemes of land and property use, increasing control efficiency of the municipal shares at JSCs, making investment contracts for the reconstruction and new construction in the view of the city interests, using paper-credits, and granting tax credits and tax detains.

The municipal competitive system on the realisation of the state orders is being launched. It is aimed at the resources saving and gradual cost reduction of the works and services for the population. For 1998 there were provisions to review the list of legal and physical entities and benefits granted to them, with the aim to comply the use of the above benefits with the solving of social and economic municipal problems. Efforts are made on the additional issue of loan bonds to finance the municipal programs and on the development of municipal lotteries’ system as an effective tool of replenishment of the city Treasure.

Industrial production, small business, and science

 As to the support of industrial production, small business, and science the complex middle-term program on the development of highly-technological, environmentally friendly, and competitive production as well as liquidation of nonviable enterprises has been worked out.

For 1998 it was planned to put into practice a set of target measures to allow the further production growth in the AMO «ZIL» and JSC «Moskvich», food, light, textile and radio-electronic industry. There were provisions to improve economic conditions in the enterprises being a priority for the viability of the capital and to liquidate and move out of the city a number of industrial enterprises.

The Moscow Government is completing the award of contracts. The actions stipulated by the complex Programme of Small Business Support and Development in 1998-2000 allow the rise of tax revenues in the city budget at the expense of annual 10% growth of works and services in this sector of the city infrastructure.

Measures are being undertaken to support scientific complex in the directions of paramount importance for the city and entire country. There are plans to provide budget financing of highly-effective projects in the field of medicine, resources, power supply, ecology, building and in elaborating modern municipal and section information systems.

The regions of the country start cooperating to implement joint social and economic programs, to provide the Muscovites with the high quality foodstuff, and to extend commodity market of the Moscow enterprises.

 Municipal infrastructure

 Further decentralisation of municipal infrastructure management is under way. The District Authorities have come in possession of all necessary financial and material resources to realise the granted rights and powers. The Moscow Authorities consolidate the cooperation with the Moscow City Duma. In 1998 together with the Moscow City Duma election, the election of municipal counsellors took place in all municipal districts for the first time. Certain results have been achieved in involving the citizens in decision making.

The process of the organisation of the Moscow citizens self-government groups started a few years ago. In the early 90^th the majority of these groups belonged to the green movement and movement of upholding historical and cultural monuments. However, by the present time new activities such as, for example, housing movement, have also emerged and taken important positions. Housing movement is in the embryonic stage yet. A number of organisations, both local (micro-district), municipal and all Russia (social and professional), are involved in this movement.

Appeared in Moscow in the late 80^th, the organisations of the citizens of one district called themselves Unions of Micro-districts and Committee of Social Self-government (CSS) can be considered the first swallows of the housing movement. The first organisations of this type are «Arbat» and «Presnya». They had being existed in the status of housing committees (domcom) for a long time and later became one of the active and successful CSSs. The CSS «Brateevo» was the first one that received an official recognition. It appeared on the wave of a serious environmental conflict and later was transformed into the real local organisation of the residents with a wide range of activities. In 1993 there were up to 230 such local structures in Moscow. These organisations were united into the Moscow Association of self-government committees, the Moscow Association of the self-government committees of the Central district, the Movement of people’s self-government, and other territorial associations, committees and unions of self-government. CSS «Kuntsevo-38» is the first in Moscow that completely took the housing fund of the district on the balance. It is CSS that pays wages to all staff of the Repairing and Exploitation Administration (REA). In this micro-district residents themselves monitor the quality of the facilities. Equally it applies to the tiny CSS «Sivtsev Vrazhek».

In autumn, 1991, few Moscow organisations focusing on the upholding of housing rights were registered within a short period of time. The Moscow Union of Housing and Building Cooperatives (HBCs) and Housing Cooperatives (HCs) united more than 800 HBCs and helped indeed to all HBS-members. The main task of the Union is to defend legal rights and interests of HBC and HC share-holders, to coordinate activities of the cooperatives, and to work out the general policy. The Union focuses on the following major problems: issues concerning services and capital repairing as well as new building. The Union has gathered the unique data about the all cooperative houses in Moscow, worked out the unified service agreement, and won more than 20 cases on the defence of HBC share-holders’ rights. It was the Union’s powerful protest actions that speeded up (if not enforced) making the governmental decision to compensate the discrepancy between the old and new prices for the construction of the HBCs houses that must have been launched in 1990, 1991, and 1992 but were not built through the constructors’ fault.

As of today cooperatives are the closest entities to «housing partnership» and «condominium». This is why in 1994 another non-governmental organisation, the Union of the flat owners of the municipal, cooperative, and departmental housing funds, might have separated from HBC.

The Union of owners has been doing a lot of work to enable cooperative houses to get «condominium» status. A number of important proposals on the documents defining the present state of the housing partnerships, have been made by the Union.

Public council on housing policy under city duma was established in Moscow in November, 1994. It includes the Union of Housing and Building Cooperatives and Housing Cooperatives, the National fund of assistance to the liquidation of the communal flats, the Moscow housing association, The Union of flat owners, the Association «Habitation is minor homeland» (corporation «Muscovites»), the Association of housing partnerships and self-government committees of the departmental houses. Besides, there are following organisations in Moscow: the Moscow Association of the self-government committees, the Moscow Committee of dwellings’ ecology, the United Committee on housing matters of the Moscow garrison’s service-men, the Moscow municipal organisation of the Veteran Union, the People’s housing JSC «Minor homeland: Reconstruction», the Union of the Youth Housing Cooperatives of Russia (Moscow division).

The development of Moscow and the Moscow region as an integrated regional economic complex playing one of the key roles in the Russia’s economy should base on a comprehensive resolving of problems connected with the formation of the economic complex with due regard for the capital city functions as well as interrelationships between plants situated in Moscow and the Moscow region.

The main principles of the environmental policy in the field of the Moscow region development should be clearly defined in the General plan of development of Moscow and its entire region. It is principally important that the development, approval, and implementation of general plans for Moscow and the Moscow region should be coordinated.

The state interests both of Russian Federation and of its two central subjects should be aimed at the provision for:

• - conditions for the sustainable development of Moscow as the Russian Federation capital, and of towns and settlements in the Moscow region and in the whole region;

• - reliable functioning of the state systems of technological and transportation infrastructures;

• - conservation of natural resources.

Public interests of the population of Moscow as well as towns and villages in the Moscow region’ should be provided by:

• - creation of favourable conditions for dwelling, labour, recreation, and tourism;

• - restriction of injurious environmental impacts of economic and other activities;

• - general improvement of the environmental situation;

• - development of engineering, transportation, and social infrastructure in settlements and adjoining areas.

Private interests of citizens and legal entities in relation to the land plots belonging to them should be provided for in course of construction and conservation activities by the observance of legal rights of owners, land users, and tenants of adjoining land plots and other real estates.

State, public, and private interests should focus on providing for preservation and conservation of historical and cultural as well as natural heritage sites being under protection of the federal and regional legislation.

It is possible to provide conditions for the sustainable development of Moscow, towns, villages, and the whole territory of the Moscow region only after resolving the following main problems:

• - raising of quality of the domestic water supply in Moscow and in adjoining towns in the central part of the Moscow region;

• - establishment of an integrated system of especially protected areas for the whole region;

• - establishment of an integrated system for the treatment, disposal, and utilisation of domestic and industrial wastes in the whole Moscow region;

• - establishment of a special planning and environmental control in the areas near ecologically dangerous plants;

• - reducing of the proportion of environmentally uncomfortable areas in the total territory of Moscow and its region;

• - organisation of agricultural production of ecologically sound goods in zones where the agriculture is environmentally safe.

The general improvement of the environmental situation in Moscow and its region depends on the implementation by the Moscow and the Moscow region’ authorities of coordinated and concerted regional policy in the sphere of environmental protection, aimed at an ecological regeneration of the whole region as well as rehabilitation of ecological crisis zones. These should be provided by:

• - establishment of ecologically sound zones with the status of especially protected region-level natural territories that include sources and basins of rivers serving as water supplies; these territories should be subordinated to the Moscow region’ government; their control and funding should be carried out together with the Moscow City Government;

• - establishment of region-level ecological rehabilitation zones in the Moscow region with the status of especially protected natural territories; their control and funding should be carried out together by the Moscow region and Moscow authorities;

• - elimination of pollution sources in the region territory as well as elimination of Moscow’s pollution sources, an impact of which ranges to the region territory;

• - ecological regeneration of the Moscow region areas situated within the impact zones of plants; this involves an increased amount of compensatory spending on sanitation and reclamation of disturbed areas;

• - maintaining of agricultural zones without any negative influences that can impair the quality of products intended for the supply of Moscow and the Moscow region’ population.

The integrated environmental policy of Moscow and the Moscow region provides that the conservation of natural resources should be achieved through:

• - formation of an integrated system of suburban green areas in Moscow and in the towns of the Moscow region carrying out ecological, sanitary and hygienic, and recreational functions; it should include forested areas, recreational zones, natural reserves, wildlife refuges, national parks, and water protection zones which are regarded as necessary to the population according to regulatory documents;

• - establishment of new parks and green areas within build-up territories of the Moscow region in order to restore continuity of the Moscow green «wedges» and natural recreational zones of the Moscow periphery and of adjoining towns in the Moscow’s nearest vicinity;

• - assignment of territories for an active recreational use with the development of ecologically oriented urbanisation forms that do not destroy the wholeness of the natural complex;

• - establishment of zones of a special city planning control in the areas of underground water extraction and along routes of canals and pipelines used for water supply of the region centre.

The integrated environmental city planning policy pays a special attention to the protection of historical and cultural as well as natural heritage sites that is provided by:

• - establishment of an integrated regional system of historical and cultural as well as natural refuges, reserves, national parks, and other especially protected areas;

• - organisation of an integrated regional system of ecological tourism using the historical and cultural potential of Moscow and the Moscow region; this can be implemented through establishment of tourist centres on the base of the most valuable historical towns of the Moscow region as well as the Moscow’s historical and cultural heritage;

• - transformation of the tourism and ecological tourism into a priority branch of the Moscow region economy that should create a wide range of new working places for inhabitants of Moscow and the Moscow region; it should be based on an active development of the system of tourist and recreational services including construction of basic accommodation facilities for specialised kinds of tourism (business, sport, educational and training, and ecological one) as well as creation of tourist centres in accordance with international standards.

The creation of favourable dwelling, labour, and recreation conditions for inhabitants of Moscow and the Moscow region can be provided only by the implementation of an environmentally oriented city planning policy aimed at restraining and stabilisation of the territorial growth of Moscow and the adjoining settlements; this involves their internal restructuring and the use of resources of the Moscow region peripheral zone for residential purposes. The development of the settlement system of Moscow and the central parts of the Moscow region under conditions of severe territorial strains can be carried out only with an emphasis on the conservation and development of the natural complex.

The development of the labour market system in Moscow and the settlements of the Moscow region includes:

• - primary development of the services sphere, development of high technology production facilities, small businesses, reduction of harmful as well as resources and power expensive production branches;

• - establishment of an integrated regional recreational system involving intensification of usage of the existing natural, recreational, historical and cultural potentials of the territory in order to meet recreational and rehabilitative needs of the residents of Moscow and its region;

• - improvement of existing settlements, traditional summer-cottage areas, rural settlements systems used for recreational purposes, and organisation of areas for a “family recreation” in the Moscow region on their base;

• - establishment of the spa system on the base of health resorts where mineral waters and therapeutic mud-baths are available, construction of health centres, curative and medical facilities on the base of local sources for the residents of Moscow and the Moscow region; these involve the use of the potential of Moscow’s medical institutions in terms of diagnostics and specialised treatment.

In order to preserve the environment, the health of the population, and providing for favourable living conditions for future generations, the environmental and city planning policies in Moscow should focus on:

• - development, approval, and implementation of an integrated city planning and environmental program for the Moscow region;

• - development, approval, and implementation of the General Plan for Moscow including the Scheme of the city natural complex;

• - conservation and development of the Moscow protective green belt, non-admission of reduction of recreational and green areas in the city and its region;

• - economic stimulation for implementation of resource saving technologies and equipment;

• -ceasing of construction of new industrial facilities within the city; development of the industrial potential of city only on the account of specialisation change or reconstruction of existing facilities.

Problems of the environmental conservation and management in the Moscow region can not be solved without a permanent mechanism for prevention, localisation, and elimination of negative man-induced impacts from projected and performed activities as well as their consequences.

4.6. Organisation of environmental protection activities

The Moscow Government is closely monitoring changes in the environmental situation in the city and makes appropriate management decisions in the form of decrees and orders. The most important of them were the following documents of the recent years: the Moscow Government Decree No. 221 of December 3, 1991 “On implementation of the basic economic methods of the nature management in Moscow”; regulations on licensing procedure concerning the searching activities for identification of degraded and polluted areas in Moscow; Enactment of Moscow mayor No. 213-RM of April 6, 1993 “On lands monitoring in Moscow”; Enactment of Moscow mayor No. 290-RM of June 17, 1994 “On regulations on the transfer of 10 per cent environmental pollution taxes to the income of the federal budget of the Russian Federation and of the Moscow city budget”.

According to the Decree No. 869 of October 22, 1996 «On measures aimed at the strengthening of environmental safety in Moscow», Militia Department for Preventing Infringements of Environmental Legislation was established with local branches in the administrative districts of the city. The Moscow City Committee on Environmental Protection was charged to provide an initial training of the Department personnel.

An urban automatic environmental monitoring system, created be the order of the Moscow City Committee on Environmental Protection, is functioning and developing in Moscow; the system supplements existing environmental monitoring facilities of the city and was established in accordance with a number of guide-lines and other documents (Decree of the Minister Council - Russian Federation Government No. 1229 of November 24, 1993 «On establishment of an Integrated state environmental monitoring system»; Decrees of Moscow Soviet Executive Committee No. 872 of April 25, 1989, and No. 452 of March 20, 1990; Decrees of Moscow City Government No. 38 of January 28, 1992, and No. 436 of May 23).

In 1997, in accordance with the Enactment of Moscow mayor (No. 483-RM of June 20, 1997) «On use of motor fuels with improved environmental characteristics and on measures aimed at economic stimulation of their production», unified technical requirements were introduced concerning the motor fuels being on sale in the city. This is the first document that clearly defines and regulates environmental restrictions as well as requirements to fuels containing substances which contribute significantly to the air pollution.

In accordance with the Decree of the Moscow City Government No. 341 of April 16, 1996, the Moscow City Committee on Environmental Protection together with the Moscow Transport Inspection «Rostest-Moscow» exerted control over the quality of motor fuels sold in Moscow.

In accordance with the requirements of the «Integrated Environmental Programme for Moscow» and of the Decree No. 517 of June 18, 1996 issued by the Moscow City Government in elaboration of this programme, the Moscow City Committee on Environmental Protection together with a number of institutions and firms established in Moscow a system of a permanent control over automobiles and of their adjustment; environmental certificates for motor vehicles were introduced.

In 1993-1994 «Integrated Environmental Programme for Moscow until the year 2005» was worked out. In September 1994 the Moscow City Government approved it. Particular aims taken by this environmental programme are as follows: freezing of emissions from all pollution sources at the level of 1994-1995; stabilisation and gradual reduction of water consumption; diminishing of pollutants discharge into the Moskva River and other water bodies of the city; removal of silt deposits from nearly 9 ha of areas in Moscow and the Moscow region; obtaining of additional areas for construction activities and establishment of recreational zones as a result of reclamation of city dumping grounds; utilisation and recycling of solid domestic (over 80 %) and industrial wastes (95%); creation of additional green areas within the city (minimum 4,000 ha) as well as reconstruction and restoration of degraded green areas.

The Integrated Environmental Programme provides ecological safety for the further development of Moscow and prevents an aggravation of social and economic problems in the city. The programme stipulates:

- the priority of resource saving measures over the raising of energy, heat, and water supply; emission reduction from heat and power plants; improvement or closing down of small boiler-houses

- implementation of a set of measures aimed at a mitigation of the negative impact from motor transportation (construction of the third ring-shaped main-street, arrangement of road junctions and pedestrian crossings; application of catalyst and oxygen additives to motor fuels; conversion of car engines from common fuel to gas; use of electric cars for the inside city transportation);

- implementation of a set of measures and works aimed at a rational use of water resources (reconstruction of sewage farms; decentralisation of waste water treatment facilities in course of construction activities in new areas; assignment of the federal status to the territories surrounding sources of water supply for Moscow City and Moscow, Tver’, and Smolensk region; construction of deep cleaning facilities for the treatment of surface waste waters; arrangement and reclaiming of flood plain areas; utilisation of residues (17,000,000 tons) of the Moscow sewage farms occupying over 1200 ha;

- reconstruction and restoration of green areas totalling over 4,000 ha; creation of new green areas within the city (4000 ha) in accordance with “Main guide-lines of the General Plan of development of Moscow and the Moscow region until 2010”;

- indisputable fulfilment of municipal programs concerning collection, utilisation, and elimination of domestic and industrial wastes.

In order to solve environmental problems of individual plants it is planned to create economic conditions, to work out regulatory and legislative as well as administrative measures aimed at «ecologisation» of industrial facilities. They include: strict application of laws concerning payments for emission and discharge of pollutants; tax concessions for plants sponsoring environmental programs; introduction of additional payments for motor fuels sold in the city, for permission to vehicles from other towns to enter into the city, for construction activities within water protective zones and nature reserves; provision for obligatory conservation measures in contracts for leasing lands; conclusion of complex nature management agreements between the city government and plants consuming natural resources.

A part of funds obtained by auctioning land leasing rights, privatisation, and from the compulsory medical insurance foundation are expended for carrying out environmental measures.

The Moscow City Committee on Environmental Protection is a territorial authority of the State Committee of the Russian Federation on Environmental Protection; it exercises a state management and coordination in the sphere of environmental protection, providing for ecological safety and protection of biological diversity as well as the state environmental control and environmental impact assessment in the city of Moscow.

The guidance and a scientific and methodical support of the Committee activities in the sphere of environmental protection and of environmental impact assessment is carried out by State Committee of the Russian Federation on Environmental Protection.

The following issues are within the competence of the Moscow City Committee on Environmental Protection: problems of environmental protection; providing for ecological safety; especially protected natural areas being under the common jurisdiction of both Russian Federation and Moscow City, and under the jurisdiction of Moscow City. Moscow City Committee on Environmental Protection is a especially authorised state body of Russian Federation in the sphere of environmental protection and of environmental impact assessment. The Moscow City Committee on Environmental Protection together with the Moscow City Government is responsible for preserving and improvement of the environmental quality in Moscow.

The Moscow City Committee on Environmental Protection acts in cooperation with departments of Moscow City Government and other local branches of especially authorised state bodies of Russian Federation in the sphere of environmental protection in Moscow.

The State Report «On the state of the environment in Moscow City» is published yearly since 1992 in Moscow. This is an information and analytical document containing data on environmental parameters and activities in Moscow during the past year. The basis for the submitting of the Report is the Decree of the Minister Council - Russian Federation Government No. 53 of January 24, 1993 as well as regulatory documents issued by State Committee of the Russian Federation on Environmental Protection that determine guidelines and a structure of the Report.

The purpose of the report is an assessment of the environmental quality and of the state of natural resources, trends of their changes, and the determination of priority problems of environmental activities in Moscow. The purpose of the Report determines its structure proceeding from specific natural and technological features of the Moscow agglomeration, as well as selection of methods for summarising and analysing environmental data allowing to work out nature conservation measures and to minimise the impact of pollution on the population health.

Since 1997, the Environmental Department of the Moscow Government takes an active part in the development of the city environmental policy.

4.7 Environmental education and information in Moscow

The base for the development of environmental education in Moscow and Moscow region is the RF Government degree № 1208 from 03.11.94 "About the measures on the improving of public environmental education".

A programme on "Public environmental education" is working since 1996. A concept of environmental education and experimental models for schoolchildren and students are developing in the frame of the programme. According to these models, new environmentally oriented educational courses both mandatory and optional are developing. A number of textbooks and methodological guidance for ecological education in necessary school and as well as before the school (such as environmental journals, notebooks and video-films) have been published in 1996.

A wide possibility for the environmental education of school children is in the frame of school course about Moscow, which was introduced under a programme "Renovation of humanitarian education in Russia". This course is aimed to get children familiar with the history of Moscow, its culture, national traditional and habits of Muscovites formed in a close connection with environmental specific of Moscow region.

Moscow students study the questions of human and nature interaction with connection to their future specialization. A new course on "Life-being safety" is introduced in all Moscow high schools and universities. The aim of this course is to provide students by the knowledge and practical skills, which are necessary for creation of safety life conditions; development of new technologies satisfied modern environmental standards and requirements; prediction of the state of emergency and proper decision making in the emergency state in order to protect public and industry from the possible consequences. As a result of this course, students are required to include an environmental part in their thesis work.

According to high environmental education directory authorized in 1994, the following institutes provided environmental specialization in 1996:

• Moscow State University named after Lomonosov M.V.,
• Moscow State Academy of Fine Chemical technologies,
• Russian Chemical Technological University named after Mendeleev D.I.,
• Moscow State Technological University,
• Moscow State Institute of Engineer Physics,
• Moscow State Building University and others.

The Moscow Independent University of Environment and Policy is the first university in Russia with environmental specialization, which was founded in the beginning of 1990. The University provides both graduate and post-graduate environmental education. The environmental department of the University educates wide profile specialists for state and local environmental authorities, industries, NGOs, foundations, research institutes, education centers and other environmental organizations.

High environmental education in Moscow has been rapidly developed since 70-th when there were only 2 institutes, which provided environmental education. In 1996, there were already 34 such institutes. According to the number of specialized departments, the most attention is paid to the following specialties:

• Environmental management,
• Environmental protection and rational use of natural resources,
• Life being safety,
• Environmental engineering.

Environmental Ph.D. students are study in 15 Moscow institutes and universities.

According to the RF Environmental Protection law, environmental education is mandatory for the directors, managers and other specialists of activity sectors connected with negative influence on the environment and people health. Therefore, post-graduate environmental education became very important.

For the additional education of environmental specialists, the scientific and education center of the RF Environmental Committee prepared educational plans and programmes "Environment: nature protection and environmental safety", which include education methodologies, programs and the list of legislative norms and acts. The scientific and educational center of Moscow Nature Committee organizes lectures and seminars on environmental standards, certification and license rules, environmental law, hazardous waste storage, the current state of the environment in Moscow, etc. State enterprise "Ecotehprom" organized the permanent cycle of seminars aimed to improve the level of environmental, economical, legislative and technical knowledge.

Future development

The main goal for the future development is the creation of a supplied education system for the preparation of high educated environmental specialists who are ready to decide complicated problems in the sphere of the environment and sustainable development. In the nearest future, it is necessary to find new form to organize environmental education in Moscow and shift the activity centers to municipal districts and micro-districts.

During the last years, environmental education in Moscow became more specific, scientific and methodological based. Nowadays, it is necessary to shift from stories about the environment to the teaching of environmentally appropriate life norms for public, scientists, engineers and decision-makers. Environmental education should become a part of the city and municipal policy.

The following points should be a basis for the development of integrated environmental education system in Moscow (the task, which is not decided neither in Russia nor in other countries):

• Environmental education is a basis for personal, family and state security because it allows to avoid extra health and environmental risks,
• Continuity of environmental education is necessary requirement,
• Environmental problems cannot be decided by a single person or by a single financial support. High level of education, common people willing and actions are necessary for effective implementation of finance and achievement of environmental goals,
• The main aim of environmental education is to ensure people's awareness of both their health and environment. That is not enough just provide people by knowledge, it is necessary to teach them to make a proper personal or collective decision according to different life situations, time and professional needs,
• Decision-making is a new sphere of education, a basis for which is only in specific management institutes. It is necessary to translate specific professional terms and definitions to more simple languish for wide public education,
• The most appropriate form of decision-making and environment teaching is active methods, such as roles and business games. An experience of such games in Moscow education system is quite enough to provide environmental education for all categories of Muscovites from children to rest-people.

Scientific bases for the development of new education programs are Moscow State University (Economical and Biological departments), Moscow International University (the School of the Environment), Russian Chemical Technological University (department on Sustainable Development) and others.

New institute of self-governments and district authorities should be wide used for the increase of public participation in decision-making process.